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| Salma Yaqoob |
by Salma Yaqoon
Introduction
As a Muslim woman, born, brought up and educated in
England, I have sometimes experienced some discomfort in practicing Western
psychology as a psychotherapist. Many times I see patients who I believe would
benefit from a more holistic approach, taking into account their spiritual
needs as well as their emotional and physical needs, but it is as if there is a
taboo in mixing faith with treatment – it is not “acceptable” or considered
“professional”. In our training as psychologists, spirituality is hardly even
mentioned, and if it is, it is done so usually in a very negative way. I was
interested in analysing why there was this split in psychology and religion,
why in the West it is that any integration of the two is viewed with suspicion.
Through a little research and reflection it became apparent that this split in
psychology and religion actually reflects the split between science and
religion in the West. Indeed the schism between science and religion is the
defining characteristic of Western thought, leading to a separation of sacred
and secular discourses.
The Split between Western
Science and Religion
The reasons for this actually lie in the Renaissance
period of Western history many centuries ago when the church was seen to be an
obstacle to scientific advancement. The ideas of philosophers and scientists
were banned from publication and discussion; e.g. Galileo who observed through
the then new invention of the telescope that the earth moves around the sun and
the sun does not move around the earth, as thought at the time, was labeled a
heretic by the church and placed under house arrest. His views were considered
contradictory to Christian teaching. Bruno who publicly stated such ideas was
interrogated by the Inquisition and then punished by burning to death at the
stake.
The result of this repression and persecution by
religious authorities was a split between science and church. But ultimately,
science was victorious over the church because the evidence of its rational
observation and experimentation just became too compelling. As a consequence,
all religion became associated with being backward, superstitious, and
regressive, and so secularism – which was a rejection of religion – became
associated with being rational, liberated and progressive. Even hundreds of
years after the conflict between church and science, the effect on the Western
psyche is still very apparent. This is why the secular discourse still remains
the only acceptable discourse. It is important to give this historical
perspective as it helps us to understand why it is so difficult to bring any
religious or spiritual meaning to science nowadays (and of course to my
particular field of psychology).
This conference is special not just because it is “ Women
in science” but “Muslim” women in science. It is important that we celebrate
this identity proudly. There is no contradiction in being Muslim and pursuing
science.
Islam and Science
There has never been a split/ schism in the Islamic
tradition, between religion and science as in the West. Indeed Islamic
civilisation began to flourish in the 8th century A.D. The Persian and Roman
civilisations were in decline and Europe was still in the dark ages.
Interestingly it was not until the Renaissance (around the 15th century) that
Western scholars had access to the Arabic material, which was then taught at
Universities several centuries after the original work had been carried out.
Many principles of modern scientific method had already been established by
Muslims. For example, the employment of doubt, by Al- Ghazzali, as a prelude to
reaching certain knowledge; the founding of the philosophy of history by Ibn
Khaldun; medical and surgical advances which formed the basis of medical study
in Western institutions for several centuries- contributions of Razi (called
Rhazes in the west), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Abul-Qasim (Abucassis), the
mathematical concepts of algebra, zero, ciphenas espoused by the likes of al-
Khayyam, and al- Birund. You name it, Muslim scholars made some contribution.
It is significant that the West rarely acknowledges the great debt it owes
Islamic scholarship – in English schools for example, we are taught about Roman
civilisation/ Ancient Egypt, but never the Islamic civilisation and contributions
to knowledge. The first Universities and Hospitals (both open to men and women,
it should be noted e.g. Qarawiyyin University here in Fez) were constructed
during this time, centuries ahead of the first such institutions in the West.
Science and religion were seen as complementary and not contradictory. Indeed
the scientists considered it their religious duty to pursue such knowledge. It
is interesting to note that the first words revealed to the Prophet (pbuh)
pertained to the importance of knowledge: not just for a small elite but for
all people.
“Read in the Name of your Lord, Who created. Creates man
from a clot. Read, and your Lord is the Most Bounteous. Who teaches by the pen.
Teaches man that which he knew not.” (Quran, 96: 1-5)
It was with the demise of the Islamic civilization that
Muslims lost their lead in science. However, we should not just look
sentimentally to past glories but into a determined vision for the future. If
we take hold once again of our great Islamic legacy there is no reason why we
cannot regain our position in the forefront of science instead of lagging
behind in the manner we are doing today. We are transferring technology from
the West now, when the West used to transfer technology and knowledge from the
East. Let us move from the backseat to the driver’s seat.
Types of Knowledge
According to the Islamic perspective, knowledge is of two
types: “revealed” Divine knowledge and material knowledge. Divine knowledge is
intuitive, subjectively experienced and leads to a transformation in the
individual. Material knowledge is what is generally considered to be
“objective” and is experienced more as a process of accumulating information.
There is a difference in transformation and information. For example, in
today’s Universities information is collected in the head but one can walk in
and out of University with the only difference being a change in age and
perceived status but not as a human being. Divine knowledge and material
knowledge though are not necessarily contradictory. They reflect the
co-existence of the two different (but not opposing) dimensions: the spiritual
dimension and the physical dimension. 2.
Islam and Notions of the Self
It is interesting to note that the Human Being is
considered to be the meeting point of these two different dimensions. The
arabic word for such a meeting point is barzakh – interspace: SPIRITUAL +
————–( (BARZAKH) PHYSICAL
Figure 1.
In the light of this Islamic perspective, any efforts to
gain an understanding of the self require a study of the spiritual aspect of
the self. Knowledge of the self, and what it means to be human, in modern times
however is not so much the domain of religion as the domain of the field of
psychology. In todays’ secular age, the field of psychology is in a way the new
theology, and therapists and psychologists are the priests of this age. The
irony is that the word “psychology” is based on the Greek word psyche, meaning
“soul”, or, “spirit”. Psychology therefore means study of the soul. However it
is now anything but, and indeed the idea of a soul or spiritual nature is not
even acknowledged in mainstream psychology. As I discussed earlier this
attitude of rejecting the spiritual can be traced to the implicit assumptions
of Western psychology rooted in secularism – which arose out of a negation of
religion or spiritual experience. Instead, within Western psychology, a
fragmented view of man is presented. In trying to gain a deeper understanding
of human nature, Western psychological theories have tended to focus only on
one aspect of the self, e.g. pyschoanalysis focuses on the unconscious,
cognitive psychology focuses on thoughts, and behavioural psychology focuses on
behaviour. No doubt, important insights have been gained, yet no model is truly
comprehensive in itself. I believe most Western psychotherapies are limited at
both ends of the spectrum – they ignore individual spirituality, and they
ignore the effects of socio-political factors on the lives of the clients.
Fundamental questions relating to man’s existence e.g. ( Where have we come
from? ( What is our purpose in life? ( What happens after we die? cannot be
addressed even by the more sophisticated approaches in mainstream psychology.
So really how much knowledge of the self do they have, and how deep is their
understanding of human psychology? Even very ‘new’ more integrated therapies
which try to include more than one aspect of the self are limited, as they too
ignore a dimension of the self which many people regard as central to being human
– the spiritual dimension.
On the other hand all Muslims should be excellent
psychologists. Our whole life is based on knowing the answers to these basic
questions. Wherever you go, from remote villages to modern cities, practising
Muslims will be able to tell that we are on a journey: Before we were born we
were with Allah, and all souls bore witness that Allah is their Lord ( 7:172)
Our purpose in this life is to worship Allah (51:56) After death we will be
raised up and according to our deeds in this lifetime we will be rewarded or
punished (101:5-8).
Importance of Developing
Islamic Psychology
From an Islamic perspective, any truly comprehensive
psychology can only develop out of a very different set of assumptions. In
effect a different paradigm of knowledge is required, so that a genuine ‘study
of the soul’ can take place and a ‘genuine psychology’, (remember the word
psychology means study of the soul), which addresses all aspects of the self
can emerge. This is why I believe that it is very important that Muslims define
and develop Islamic psychology based on the Quran, which Muslims regard as the
most reliable source of knowledge possible, as it is from Allah who created us
and therefore knows absolutely everything about us. Other knowledge may give us
‘glimpses’ of truths about ourselves as researchers continually ‘discover’ what
Allah has created. However, human theories remain limited as they lack the
overall picture: they have a very narrow context. For no matter how
‘intelligent’ scientists are, they will always be limited and fallible and
subject to the time and culture they live in. And while they might try to
address details of specific problems, they do not have answers for the most
basic of questions people face regarding the meaning and purpose of life.
I have proposed a model of the self, outlining different
aspects of the self, together with the differing influences of the self (both
internal and external). I have attempted to show how insights from modern
knowledge can be integrated into notions of the self, based on Islamic
principles, so that a creative synthesis may be possible of the two different
bodies of knowledge. This model also indicates implications for the therapeutic
interventions. Cognitive, behavioural, affective aspects of the self are
acknowledged, as is the validity of drawing on techniques (as opposed to
overall rationale or implicit metaphysics) of various Western psychological
approaches. It emphasises the unification of the different aspects of the self
via the spiritual aspect. In this model spirituality underlies and has the
capacity to influence all aspects of the self. The aim and method of Islamic
psychology, then, is not fragmentation but unification – acknowledging and
returning man to his original state of wholeness.
From an Islamic point of view, human beings are not
simply physical beings – complex animals. They have another dimension to them,
their spirituality, which links them to God. In the Quranic account of
creation, following the breathing of God’s spirit into Adam, God commanded the
angels to prostrate themselves before Adam, “ and We told the angels ,
‘Prostrate to Adam’ and they prostrated” (Quran 7:11). The angels were in
effect prostrating before the Divine mystery within Adam, and acknowledging that
he was God’s representative – Khalifa in Arabic – a station which even they as
sinless beings had not been accorded.
Concept of Fitra
An important concept relating to the concept of human
nature from an Islamic perspective is fitra. Fitra refers to the primordial
state of man- his natural condition and disposition. The optimistic view of
human nature is rooted in this concept. Islam posits that the natural state of
man is a positive and ‘good’ state – one in submission to God. This is related
to the idea that all souls made a pledge with God before earthly existence,
acknowledging Him as their Lord (Quran, 7:172). Even before we were born, or
were conceived, our souls met with Allah. The spiritual aspect of every human
has therefore already experienced the Divine. The defining experience of man in
the Islamic perspective then, is not his physical aspect, but his spiritual
aspect. This spiritual aspect of man is what the Quran, along with all
spiritual traditions, appeals to. If early childhood experiences are considered
to impact strongly on an individual’s life (even if only unconsciously) as
suggested by Freud, the impact of such an experience going back to a time even
earlier, of course would be fundamental. According to an Islamic point of view
this explains the instinct in all individuals for right and wrong, (although in
some it may be buried more deeply than others).
Spiritual or religious experience is therefore more a
form of recognition than discovery. This is exemplified in the Quran in Chapter
7, verse157:
“He the Prophet enjoins on them that which they
themselves sense as right, and forbids them that which they themselves sense as
wrong.”
The religious emphasis is thus more on the inner
experience than an externally imposed experience……….a part of us already knows
the truth. Due to the initial experience of union with God, a part of the
individual seeks that union again. This quest is often begun with a search for
the meaning of life. According to the Quran, the eternal aspect of each
individual, the soul, is on a journey and passes through various stages in
life. The end point of this journey though, as was the beginning, is God.
In Quran 6:94 we are told:
“And now you have returned to Us alone, as We created you
at first, leaving behind all that we bestowed on you.”
The Quran is the basis of any Islamic perspective. 3.
Islamic Perspective of
Journey of Self
Souls with Allah
In womb
Earthly life
Barzakh
Everlasting life
Journey of Self
It is clear to us when we view our lives from this
perspective, our time here on earth is actually only a small part of our
ultimate destiny. The Prophet (pbuh) described this life as a mere drop of
water as compared to a whole ocean. Yet, most of us focus the majority of our
energy and time on things related only to this life – whether it be our
education, our jobs, aiming to reach a certain status, having big bank
accounts, wearing the right clothes etc… we rarely step back and think where we
have come from, and ultimately where we are all going to. For one thing that
every single person on this planet shares in common whether they are rich or
poor, white or black, from a high or low class, is that each moment brings us
all closer to our death. The death we experience, however, is only physical.
Within each and every human is a part of them which is beyond this. It is
amazing to reflect that all of us contain infinity within us, within our souls.
This is the real us. The part that is not destroyed. How we look after this
part of us determines our state in this world and in the hereafter. It is a
very simple reality but often forgotten. It is up to each of us to focus on and
do our utmost to develop this inner, spiritual aspect of ourselves. Just as
people recognise the need to do regular exercise to keep our bodies fit and
toned we need to exercise our inner senses. Simple physical neglect we know
leads to slackness in our body and ultimately disease. In the same way neglect
of our inner selves leads to slackness and disease. Inner diseases include
things like arrogance, selfishness, greed, impatience etc. …..all these affect
our inner hearts, they are like layers of “dirt” which can lead to us becoming
blind inside. Sometimes when people become tuned into their inner hearts they
say “my eyes opened” and they wish that others could ‘see’ what they could and
regret not seeing it sooner. Obviously there was nothing wrong with their
eyesight, it was their inner heart which had been blind. In the simple diagram
above, lies the distinct approach that Islam has to the aims and objectives of
human beings.
Islam has it’s own definition of ‘progress’ –
encompassing both spiritual progress of man – affecting his psychological and
social state, and material progress – the harnessing of resources and skills
development, which is also very much encouraged in Islam. The important thing
to remember here is that for the last few centuries the Western definition of
‘progress’ has really only related to material, technical progress. It is only
now being acknowledged, even within Western academic and scientific circles
that the West has paid a heavy price in social terms for this material success.
It has been learning in a slow and painful manner that material progress in
itself cannot ensure social progress. It may help alleviate certain problems
but not solve them completely. And if not pursued in a cautious and conscious
manner, the rise in technology itself can be a source of social problems. As a
psychotherapist I have to deal first hand with the many social and
psychological problems people experience in England, which is considered among
the most developed and ‘progressive’ countries in the world. Social cohesion
has been eroded and the family unit has disintegrated. Cases of anxiety and
depression have increased at alarming rates. The irony is that I am actually
being approached by mainstream psychology services in England to provide
‘spiritual therapy’ even within the National Health Service. This shows the
limitations of the standard psychological therapies: they are simply not
adequate in dealing with the severe problems society is facing. However, my
message is not that we should not progress materially – of course we should –
people have a right to good living standards. Only that we see before us the
results of a scientific experiment on the part of the West. It would be unwise
to not learn from the results of this – otherwise history would simply repeat
itself in the developing countries. Let us take the best and beneficial aspects
of Western technology, but from the basis of a firm Islamic foundation and
perspective. In this way we should avoid repetition of some of the West’s
mistakes of material progress at the expense of social progress. There is no
reason why we cannot have the best of both.
Concept of Nafs
Of particular interest in the model of the self is the
concept of ‘Nafs’ – the Arabic word used in the Qur’an and translated as ‘self’
or ‘soul’. Due to the different possible states of the self, different types of
‘Nafs’ have been described in the Quran. From the Islamic point of view Nafs
can be good or evil as it can be pulled toward higher potentials of the self or
lower potentials of the self (Quran, 95:14-16). Earthly existence is about
choice – which way will we go? Again the idea of the journey of the self is
important. We are capable of choosing various paths – some which are consistent
with Islamic aim in life – Union with the creator, and others which are not.
The point is that the self is always in a dynamic flux – the same person
experiences different states within themselves at different times. Three
important states of the self mentioned in the Quran include:
Nafs Ammara (the commanding or lower self) Quran 12:53.
This self is prone to the lower aspects of the self, representing the negative
drives in man. It can be viewed as analogous to the Freudian concept of ‘id’
e.g ‘I want to do it now… I don’t care if it’s right or wrong.’
Nafs Lawwama (The self reproaching self) Quran 75:2 This
state corresponds to the self when it becomes aware of wrong- doing and feels
remorse. A parallel between the Freudian concept of ‘superego’ and nafs lawwama
may be drawn. The feeling of “I shouldn’t have done that” or “why did I do that
– I wish I hadn’t…” 3.
Nafs Mutmainnah (The peaceful self) Quran 89:27-28 This
is the state of inner peace and happiness, when you feel satisfied and content
in yourself. This is the state that we are aiming to achieve. In order to
achieve the state of tranquility and peace one has to activate the remorseful
self (e.g. through sincere repentance) and control the lower commanding self
(through self discipline). 3.
Importance of Balance and
Boundaries in Islam
The idea of balancing the different aspects of the self –
physical and spiritual – is very important in Islam. One should not go to the
extreme of emphasising one aspect of the self at the expense of the other.
Exhortation to seek a balance in satisfying both body and soul is found in the
Quran: “But seek the abode of the hereafter in that which Allah has given you
and neglect not your portion of the world, and be kind even as God has been
kind to you and seek not corruption in the Earth…..” (Quran 28:77) We can place
Islam’s attitude to physical appetites on a continuum where it lies in between
the extremes of suppression and overindulgence:
SUPPRESSION MIDDLE/BALANCE OVERINDULGENCE
“ISLAM”
Continuum of Attitudes to
Physical Instincts
The extremity of suppression is condemned:
“who has forbidden the beautiful and good things which God
has bestowed?” (Quran 7:32).
For example, the relationship of attraction between men
and women is sanctified, not viewed as a moral compromise, but a blessing,
elevated to the rank of the signs of God himself:
“And among his signs is this, that He created for you
spouses from among yourselves, that you may find repose in them, and He has put
between you love and mercy. Verily in that are indeed signs for people who
reflect.” (Quran 30:21)
Also “God has created for your enjoyment everything on
earth” (Quran 2:29)
In Islam physical aspects of man are not only
legitimated, but man is encouraged to enjoy them. In the light of this, the
secular, eg Freud’s view of religion as repressive of natural instincts is
clearly not universally applicable. The extremity of over indulgence however is
also warned against:
“…..eat and drink without excess, for God loves not those
given to excess” (Quran 7:31).
In this way boundaries are set up to ensure moderation.
Removal of boundaries and unlimited indulgence may appear attractive at first.
However they inevitably lead to an imbalance, the result being an unhealthy
state as opposed to a healthy and fulfilled one. 5.
Self Development
The notion of balance in Islam has implications for the
important area of self development. Western psychology conceptualises self
indulgence as removal of moral restrictions on people so that they are not
‘repressed’. According to Freud religious belief is a pathological symptom and
sign of arrested development leading to neurosis. In this way the removal or
‘transgression’ of those boundaries limiting free expression of physical drives
is encouraged. However no real notion of a ‘healthy’ ideal is suggested. This
Freudian approach to mental health of ‘absence of pathology’ is reflected
within the tradition of western medicine as a whole. This can be seen to be a
rather limiting approach, however. A model at best aimed at ‘absence of
disease’ offers no contribution to the important area of self development, as
it is unable to define positive mental health. The Islamic model however, would
advocate seeking to establish an equilibrium within the physical aspects, so
that they are neither denied nor over indulged. The notion of moderation in the
Islamic perspective is very much related to concepts of ideal states, balance,
adopting the middle way and justice in Islam:
“Thus we have appointed you a middle nation, that you may
be witnesses for mankind.” (Quran 2:413).
Indeed, the arabic word ‘Wasata’ in the Quran, translated
here as ‘middle’ has been translated in differing English translations as ‘just
and best’ (Hilali and Khan) and ‘golden mean’ (Maududi’s commentary translated
by Akbar). In this way one word conveys many interrelated concepts. Justice is
the consequence of following the middle way, and it is one of the main
characteristics of the middle way. Adoption of the ‘middle way’ in the Islamic
perspective, is thus both a means and aim of self -development and fulfillment.
By taking the middle path we will achieve the ideal state and the ideal state
itself is the ‘middle’ or balanced state. In this way, boundaries (determined
by God) are not viewed as simply limiting the human self, but as providing
parameters within which ultimate inner balance and development can take place.
As Muslims we can appreciate the perfection in the balance and limits Allah has
placed in creation. If the earth was even slightly closer to the sun,
everything would be burnt, and if the earth was even slightly further from the
sun, it would be too cold to sustain life. But where Allah has placed it is
just right for living things to grow. It is amazing when we discover the
beauty, the intricacy and harmony that Allah has placed in the natural system –
from cosmology to biology to physics. In the same way the beliefs and practices
of Islam provide people with the perfect balance. Islam provides the perfect
context for optimum growth and development as it is from Allah who has placed
such beauty and order in everything else. He has placed it within us, in our
Fitra. When we go beyond the correct limits, we commit an injustice, and
ultimately it is an injustice to ourselves – we only betray ourselves in the
end:
“O Mankind ! Your rebellion is only against
yourselves!…..” (Quran 10:23). But because we have free will we can choose not
to live in this perfect balance within ourselves and with the rest of creation.
Summary
The Islamic approach to the self, I have outlined above,
can be summarised in two basic points. Striving for self for unification with
the Divine, and Striving for self for equilibrium within physical instincts.
Both spiritual and physical possibilities are thus optimised.
Figure 5
(Heaven) Spiritual Aim is Dimension UNIFICATION
(Earth) Physical Dimension Aim is EQUILIBRIUM
Conclusion
I cannot stress enough the importance of developing
Islamic psychology – because psychological assumptions about the nature of the
self and what it means to be human -underlie not only psychological therapies
but the approach of governments to social welfare and education. In this way
psychological models actually shape the agendas and priorities eg those of
important policy makers, thereby influencing whole nations. For example, the
national education policy in England for school curricula stipulates that the
three core subjects of Maths, English, and Science must be taught. None of
these subjects incorporate ideas of self development and inner growth in the
pupils. A whole generation of children are therefore being shaped by fragmented
education which allows them to be technically skilled but does not allow them
to explore their potential as whole people. To conclude, for too long the
Islamic contribution to knowledge of the self and its application/ implications
for positive mental health development has not been recognised or explored
fully. I believe that the science of the self is the foundation of all
sciences. As the Prophet (saw) said: “He who knows himself knows Allah”. The
word ‘science’ is based on the Greek word meaning ‘knowledge’ or ‘to know’. And
the simple truth is that Allah is not only the Ultimate Reality but the source
of all knowledge. I think it is time that we woke up to our valuable heritage
and carried the baton of Islamic knowledge from the past, forward into the
future. In the field of psychology two steps are required for this – theory
development and practical application. We need to consciously develop a new
field of study – Islamic Psychology – involving theoretical integration of
Islamic notions of the self with current western models of psychology. This
theoretical framework should be applied in developing a practical “Islamic
Counselling” approach with its own distinct processes and techniques. I am
confident that such research will benefit not only Muslims but all people – Islam
came as a mercy to the whole of mankind. As Muslim scientists and practitioners
we need to be pro-active, not reactive. We must sow the seeds now for a firm
foundation and InshaAllah they will flourish, even if not in our own lifetime
but in future generations.
Suggested Islamic Model of
Self Showing Influences on Balance of Personality
Salma Yaqoob
INTERNAL INFLUENCES
NAFS Negative and positive drives within self Lower Self
to Higher Self 1.nafs ammara 2.nafs lawwama 3.nafs mutmainna
SPIRITUALITY
Task in relation to this: Identify diseases of the heart
Resources: QURAN, HADITH, DHIKR, MUSLIM THERAPEUTIC TRADITIONS that address
1,2,and 3 in differing ways.
1. MIND
Task: Challenge maladaptive thoughts
Resources: COGNITVE TECHNIQUES
2. BODY
Task: Challenge maladaptive learned habits
Resources: BEHAVIOURAL TECHNIQUES
3. EMOTIONS
Task: explore feelings/ identify unresolved tensions
Resources: PERSON CENTRED APPROACH / PSYCHODYNAMIC
TECHNIQUES
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES SOCIETY
AND CULTURE
Including Family, Significant others, political factors
etc.
Aim of therapy:
To achieve harmony within self by optimally balancing the
various aspects of the self through awareness of differing influences, leading
to peace within and without (a state of Islam).
Presented at International Conference on ‘Muslim Women in
Science : A Better Future’ Fez, Morocco, 22-24 March 2000 ; Organised by The
Royal Academy of Science International Trust (RASIT) and The Islamic
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (ISESCO). 1.